The textile industry is built on a rich diversity of fibres, each with its own unique set of properties that make them suitable for a wide range of applications. Whether they are derived from plants or animals or manufactured synthetically, fibres are the backbone of the fabrics we use in everyday life, as well as in specialised fields such as medical textiles, industrial applications, and advanced technologies. Understanding the various types of fibres—natural, synthetic, and those designed for specific purposes—provides valuable insight into how textiles are made and why they perform the way they do. In this article, we explore the chemistry, characteristics, and uses of these fibres, as well as emerging innovations that could shape the future of textiles.
Natural fibres have been used for thousands of years, offering eco-friendly, biodegradable, and renewable alternatives to synthetic materials. These fibres are primarily sourced from plants, animals, and even minerals and are valued for their natural comfort, breathability, and aesthetic qualities. The most commonly used natural fibres are plant-based (cellulose), animal-based (protein), and mineral-based.
Plant fibres are composed mainly of cellulose, a polysaccharide made up of glucose units linked together to form long, fibrous chains. The structure of cellulose makes these fibres strong yet relatively easy to spin into yarns, allowing them to be woven or knitted into fabrics. One of the most prominent examples is cotton, which has been used for centuries to create soft, breathable fabrics. Cotton fibres are particularly valued for their moisture-absorbing properties, making them ideal for clothing, bedding, and towels. The cellulose content of cotton is about 90%, contributing to its strength and softness. When spun into yarn, cotton fibres produce a fabric that is durable yet comfortable, with excellent absorbency. Cotton fabrics are also easy to dye, making them suitable for a variety of colour applications.
Linen, derived from the flax plant, shares similarities with cotton but has distinct advantages. It is stronger than cotton, offering excellent durability, especially in humid environments. The inherent natural lustre of linen also gives it a crisp, fresh appearance, making it highly desirable for summer garments and home textiles like tablecloths and bed linens. However, linen is prone to wrinkling, which some consumers find less desirable for everyday wear.
Hemp, another plant-based fibre, is gaining traction due to its environmental benefits. It is highly resistant to mildew and pests, making it a sustainable crop. The fibres are strong and durable and require fewer pesticides or fertilisers than other crops. Hemp fabrics are ideal for industrial uses such as ropes, canvas, and eco-friendly apparel.
Animal-based fibres are predominantly made of proteins, specifically keratin, the same protein found in human hair. Wool, for example, is derived from the fleece of sheep and is well-known for its insulating properties. The unique crimp in wool fibres helps trap air, providing warmth even when wet. This makes wool an excellent material for winter garments such as sweaters, coats, and scarves. Additionally, wool’s ability to absorb moisture—up to 30% of its weight without feeling damp—contributes to its warmth and comfort. Wool is also naturally flame-retardant, which adds an element of safety to garments made from it. However, wool can sometimes be scratchy for sensitive skin and may require special care to prevent shrinkage.
Silk, produced by the larvae of the silkworm, is considered the epitome of luxury. Known for its smooth texture and lustrous sheen, silk is the strongest natural fibre when dry, even stronger than steel in some cases. This delicate fibre is prized for its ability to regulate body temperature, keeping the wearer warm in winter and cool in summer. It is used predominantly in high-end garments such as evening gowns, ties, and lingerie, as well as luxurious bedding. However, silk is relatively delicate and prone to damage from sunlight, perspiration, and harsh cleaning processes.
Cashmere, sourced from the undercoat of the Cashmere goat, is another high-end fibre. Known for its softness, warmth, and lightness, cashmere is finer than merino wool and is used in luxury garments like sweaters and scarves. Its insulating properties make it an excellent choice for cold weather, while its delicate texture provides a touch of elegance and comfort.
Mineral fibres, although not as widely used, are important in specific applications requiring resistance to high temperatures or chemical environments. Basalt fibres, made from volcanic rock, are known for their incredible strength and resistance to heat. They are used in fire-resistant clothing, industrial insulation, and reinforced composites in the construction industry. Basalt’s high silica content gives it remarkable durability and resistance to corrosion, making it ideal for applications where longevity and high thermal resistance are crucial.
While natural fibres have been the cornerstone of textile production for centuries, the rise of synthetic fibres has revolutionised the industry. Synthetic fibres are man-made, typically from petrochemical products, and they offer a level of control and customisation that natural fibres cannot always match. The development of these fibres has led to a greater diversity of textile options, providing solutions for everything from everyday clothing to high-performance industrial materials.
Polyester is one of the most widely used synthetic fibres. It is known for its durability, ease of care, and resistance to wrinkles and shrinking. Polyester is made from polyethylene terephthalate (PET), a polymer created by the polymerisation of ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid. Polyester is hydrophobic, meaning it resists moisture absorption, which makes it less breathable than natural fibres. However, its low-maintenance nature and affordability make it an ideal choice for mass-produced clothing and home textiles like curtains and bedsheets.
Polyester fabrics can also be blended with natural fibres like cotton to create materials that offer the best of both worlds—combining the breathability and softness of cotton with the durability and easy care of polyester. The fabric is also highly dyeable, allowing for a wide range of colours and designs.
Nylon, one of the first synthetic fibres ever developed, is made from polyamide polymers and is known for its strength, elasticity, and abrasion resistance. Its ability to stretch and return to its original shape makes it ideal for activewear, swimwear, and performance apparel. Due to its high tensile strength, nylon is also used in industrial applications such as airbags, ropes, and parachutes.
Despite its excellent durability, nylon does have some drawbacks, including its low moisture absorbency and tendency to attract static electricity. These characteristics can make nylon less comfortable in certain garments, but its resilience and versatility have ensured its widespread use in a variety of applications.
Spandex, also known as Lycra or elastane, is a synthetic fibre known for its incredible elasticity. Capable of stretching up to five times its original length, spandex is primarily used in activewear, performance costumes, and compression garments. Its ability to provide a snug, supportive fit without restricting movement makes it ideal for sportswear such as yoga pants, swimsuits, and cycling shorts. Spandex is also often blended with other fibres, such as cotton and polyester, to provide added stretch and comfort.
As the textile industry evolves, fibres are being engineered for highly specific functions. These fibres are not only designed for traditional uses but also for specialised applications that require unique properties like resistance to fire, UV radiation, and even bullets. Let’s explore some of these innovative fibres in detail:
UV-protective fibres are created with special coatings or chemical treatments that absorb or block ultraviolet (UV) radiation. These treatments can be applied to natural or synthetic fibres, offering an added layer of protection for outdoor clothing and accessories. The use of UV-protective fibres is becoming increasingly popular for activewear, beachwear, and even children's clothing, as they provide protection from the harmful effects of the sun's rays, including skin cancer and premature ageing.
UV-protective fibres are often made from polyester or nylon and treated with UV-absorbing agents. For example, zinc oxide is frequently added to fibres to increase their UV-blocking properties. The incorporation of UV-blocking additives helps maintain the integrity of the fabric while offering sun protection.
Fire-resistant fibres are designed to withstand high temperatures without igniting. One of the most well-known fire-resistant fibres is Nomex, a type of aramid fibre widely used in the production of protective clothing for firefighters, military personnel, and industrial workers exposed to high temperatures. The fibres contain aromatic polyamide chains that are highly resistant to heat and do not degrade easily. They can withstand extreme conditions, providing life-saving protection in hazardous environments.
Another fire-resistant fibre gaining attention is PBI (polybenzimidazole), which is known for its superior flame resistance and thermal stability. PBI fibres are used in high-performance protective apparel, such as fire suits, and industrial applications, such as thermal insulation.
Aramid fibres, such as Kevlar, are designed to absorb and dissipate the kinetic energy of high-impact objects like bullets. These fibres are incredibly strong, lightweight, and resistant to deformation, making them ideal for use in bulletproof vests and body armour. The unique molecular structure of aramid fibres allows them to absorb the force of a bullet and disperse it across the surface of the fabric, reducing the risk of injury to the wearer. Kevlar’s durability and ability to withstand high-impact forces have made it one of the most widely used materials in personal protective equipment.
A new frontier in textile innovation lies in conductive and smart fibres, which can change or adapt to their environment. These fibres are designed to transmit electrical signals, making them useful in a variety of applications, from healthcare to wearable electronics. Conductive fibres are often embedded with carbon nanotubes or metallic threads, enabling the fabric to carry electricity. This is particularly beneficial in creating garments with integrated sensors, temperature-regulating capabilities, or even health-monitoring functions.
For instance, fabrics made from conductive fibres can be used in e-textiles that monitor a person’s vital signs, such as heart rate or body temperature. These smart textiles are increasingly used in sportswear, healthcare, and military applications, where real-time monitoring of physical conditions is crucial.
In addition to their functional applications, there are fibres specifically designed to enhance hygiene and prevent the growth of harmful microorganisms. Anti-microbial fibres are treated with chemical agents that kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria, fungi, and viruses. These fibres are widely used in medical textiles such as wound dressings, surgical gowns, and hospital linens, as well as in athletic wear, where hygiene is a concern.
The antimicrobial properties of these fibres can also be used in everyday clothing, like socks and underwear, to prevent odour and prolong the fabric’s lifespan. These fibres typically incorporate silver nanoparticles or copper-based compounds, which are known for their antibacterial and antifungal properties.
Another example of specialised fibres are those designed for water repellency and waterproofing. While water-resistant fabrics are typically treated with a hydrophobic coating, true waterproof fibres are engineered at the molecular level to resist water penetration. For instance, Gore-Tex is a well-known brand that uses expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (ePTFE) fibres, which are porous but water-resistant, making them ideal for rainwear and outdoor gear. These fibres allow moisture vapour to escape, keeping the wearer dry from sweat while preventing water from entering the fabric.
Fibres are the backbone of the textile industry, with a broad spectrum of materials available to meet the demands of everyday life and specialised applications. Natural fibres like cotton, wool, and silk continue to offer unmatched comfort, breathability, and sustainability, while synthetic fibres such as polyester, nylon, and spandex provide durability, strength, and performance. Moreover, the development of specialised fibres for UV protection, fire resistance, bulletproofing, and other functions showcases the industry's commitment to innovation. As the demand for more functional, sustainable, and high-performance materials increases, the textile industry will continue to push the boundaries of what fibres can do, leading to the creation of even more specialised materials designed to meet the challenges of the modern world.
